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Abstract Introduction There is a wide range of possible combinations in relation to sex at birth, gender identity, and sexual orientations. Specific medical and psychological treatment needs may also vary depending on these combinations. Objective In order to promote interventions that focus on the perceived needs of those directly involved, the aim of the present case study is to describe the clinical and life experiences of a 43-year old transgender woman with cryptorchidism and examine the interplay between this relative common testicular problem at birth, gender identity, and sexual orientation formation processes from her own perspective. Method An in-depth interview was conducted at a specialized care centre in Mexico City, Mexico. The interview was audio recorded and transcribed for a content analysis. Results The case under analysis was assigned to the male sex and identified herself as a transgender woman and lesbian. Although it is not possible to conclude that her gender identity or sexual orientation is related to her antecedent of cryptorchidism, as she reflected on her related negative experiences, she concluded that her gender identity and sexual orientation trajectories, as well as her life in general, would have been completely different if there were no clinical interventions in her early development. Discussion and conclusion The present case could have been benefited from not receiving early treatment for her cryptorchidism. There is an urgent need for the development of standardized protocols or algorithms for physical and mental health care professionals, which focus on supportive guidance rather than adjustment to parental and medical expectations.
Resumen Este artículo presenta la historia clínica y de vida de una mujer transexual con criptorquidia al nacer. Nuestro objetivo es presentar un estudio de caso en que la identidad transgénero y la criptorquidia, una condición testicular común en niños e identidades trans, podrían cumplir un papel en los procesos de formación de identidad de género. La interacción entre la identidad de género y la orientación sexual también se presenta como entrevistas semiestructuradas destinadas a recopilar datos sobre intervenciones clínicas tempranas según lo informado por la persona. Abogamos por un algoritmo psicológico que abarque la comunicación interprofesional específicamente diseñada para las personas con diferencias de sexo/género, centrándose en la orientación de apoyo en lugar de ajustarse a las expectativas médicas y de los padres.
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RESUMEN: Antecedentes: El estudio del consumo de solventes inhalables en México se inició en la década de 1970 y a pesar de que por periodos ha disminuido el interés en el mismo, éste no ha desaparecido y debido a que el consumo prevalece entre la población joven, es relevante actualizar el estado del arte en la materia. Objetivo: Identificar el estado del conocimiento sobre los solventes inhalables, las consecuencias, las alternativas de prevención y su tratamiento en las cuatro últimas décadas en México. Método: Se realizó una búsqueda bibliográfica entre agosto y septiembre de 2014, de los artículos publicados entre 1970 y 2014 sobre el consumo de solventes inhalables en México. Se integraron publicaciones incluidas en el archivo histórico de la Dirección de Investigaciones Epidemiológicas y Psicosociales, en la revista SALUD MENTAL, Medline, Elsevier y Scielo México. Resultados: Se identificaron 1083 artículos, 83 cumplieron con todos los criterios para ser incluidos en el análisis. Estos trabajos se realizaron en diferentes poblaciones: grupos marginales, integrantes de bandas juveniles, niños en situación de calle, adultos y menores recluidos en centros de detención, sexoservidoras, personas que acuden a solicitar tratamiento, estudiantes y población general. Discusión y conclusión: Se identificaron diferentes aspectos relevantes de la población consumidora de solventes inhalables en nuestro país, así como acciones pendientes en materia de investigación, con lo que se pueden desarrollar programas de prevención y tratamiento que atiendan las necesidades específicas de estos grupos, ya que son pocos los programas existentes y algunos no han tenido seguimiento o evaluación.
ABSTRACT: Background: The study about the misuse of inhalant solvents started in Mexico during the 1970, although the interest in this subject decreased during some periods, its consumption continued among the young population, thus, it is relevant to update the state of the art on this matter. Objective: Identify the state of knowledge on inhalant abuse, its consequences, prevention and the treatment alternatives in Mexico in the last four decades. Method: We performed a bibliographical inquiry between August and September 2014 on the papers published between 1970 and 2014 about inhalant solvents consumption in Mexico. It integrated the publications included in the historical archive of the Epidemiological and Psycho-social Research Direction, Mental Health Journal, Medline, Elsevier and Scielo México. Results: After revision, 83 out of 1083 papers fulfilled all the criteria that we considered for inclusion in the analysis. This body of work has been performed on different population segments: marginalized groups, juvenile gang members, children in street situation, adults and minors secluded in detention centers, sex workers, people seeking treatment, students, and the general population. Discussion and conclusion: The several relevant aspects of the consumer population of inhalant solvents in Mexico were identified. Detection of this ample profile of individuals at risk could serve as the basis for the development of prevention and treatment programs to attend to the specific needs of these groups, since the programs currently in progress are scarce and some of them have not had follow up assessments or have not been evaluated at all.
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Introduction In Mexico, alcohol abuse involves overhead costs in terms of premature mortality caused by their related health problems. It is estimated that by itself it implies 9% of the total burden of disease in the country. Although effective interventions exist to treat this problem, national public policies are not integrated and in many occasions its real application is questioned. Cost-effectiveness studies are tools that permit to develop and to implement health public policies because they imply a rigorous economic evaluation and comparison of those in order to determine which obtains better balance between effectiveness and financial viability. Thus, the aim of the present study was to determine the cost-effectiveness of interventions to prevent and to control alcohol abuse in Mexico, based on the proposed methodology by the World Health Organization. It will permit to generate national public policies with local evidence and to carry out evaluations of their impact, as well as international comparisons. Method The World Health Organization methodology named WHO-CHOICE (CHOosing the Interventions that are Cost-Effective) was developed to evaluate and to select the most cost-effective interventions for the prevention or treatment of health problems. It is considered a generalized cost-effective analysis; therefore direct or tangible costs are particularly analyzed (vs. indirect or intangible costs). Procedure First, WHO-CHOICE analysis requires information from different sources about both the illness or problem and the preventive or therapeutic interventions to evaluate. Then, information is processed by special software. As annual standard discount of 3% is done to obtain and to compare the present supplies values; and age of individuals is praised, giving more weight to the young phases. Finally, the results are presented in terms of intervention cost-effectiveness to reduce the burden of disease, defined in terms of disability adjusted life years or DALYs. Interventions The following interventions were evaluated: 1. Current Setting: Taxes and random tests for the detection of alcoholic breath (breathalyzer); 2. Increment of 25% to taxes of products with harmful degree of alcohol; 3. Increment of 50% to taxes of products with harmful degree of alcohol; 4. Reduction of availability of products with harmful degree of alcohol; 5. Regulation of the associated publicity; 6. Brief preventive-persuasiveness intervention in the first level of attention; and 7. Random Tests for detection of alcoholic breath (breathalyzer). Results The independent measure with greater cost-effectiveness to avoid DALYs due to alcohol abuse was the increment of taxes, which is better when it reaches 50%. All increment of taxes avoids (with or without discount and adjustment by age) more than 1 50 000 DALYs per year. The increment of 50% surpasses even 300 000 DALYs per year (without adjustment neither discount). In contrast, none of the other interventions (with adjustment and discount) reaches 50 000 DALYs per year. Besides, the increments of taxes are always more economic than the interventions remainder. The extreme comparison of DALY avoided per year costs is among 50% taxes increment, which requires an investment of 567 Mexican pesos, and the brief intervention in the first level of attention, that implies an expense of 14,342 Mexican pesos. After taxes increment, effective independent interventions to reduce DALYs in Mexico include, in this order: reduction of the offering, integral prohibition of alcohol consumption publicity, brief intervention in the first level of attention, and the random test of alcoholic breath. Finally, the best integral strategy was a combination of the following measures: increment of taxes, greater proportion of people attended with brief interventions, control of publicity, and reduction of availability. Discussion In Mexico, as in many countries of the world, the increase of taxes was the most cost-effective intervention to reduce burden caused from abuse alcohol. This kind of interventions should consider the possible differential impacts according to the socioeconomical status of individuals or groups. Another related problem could be an increment of informal market. Therefore, it is necessary to complement the intervention with strategies directed at reducing the volume of alcoholic beverages that do not pay taxes. All other interventions (not taxes increment) were less cost-effective probably because they have considerably higher costs and smaller impact due their dispensation is eventual. Results of this exercise can have a positive impact among Mexican public policies on the field if the relevance of integral strategies is recognized, with political support, and having achieved a consensus of the population on the advantages of its orchestration.
Introducción Los análisis de costo-efectividad se sugieren como una herramienta esencial para gestionar e implementar políticas públicas en salud, pues permiten compararlas a fin de conocer cuál es la que obtiene mejor balance entre efectividad y viabilidad financiera. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue determinar el costo-efectividad de las intervenciones para prevenir y controlar el abuso de alcohol en México. Método Se utilizó la metodología WHO-CHOICE de la Organización Mundial de la Salud: un análisis de costo-efectividad generalizado (vs. particular) que toma en cuenta prácticamente los costos directos o tangibles (vs. los intangibles). El procedimiento implica la obtención de información de diversas fuentes, tanto de la enfermedad o problema en cuestión como de las intervenciones preventivas o terapéuticas a evaluar. Esta información se carga entonces para su análisis en un software o programa ad hoc. Se hace un descuento estándar de 3% anual para obtener y comparar el valor presente de los insumos, y se pondera la edad de los individuos, dando más peso a las etapas jóvenes. Finalmente, los resultados se plantean en términos de costo-efectividad de las intervenciones para reducir la carga de la enfermedad, definida en años vividos con discapacidad o disfunción (DALYs, por sus siglas en inglés: disability adjusted life-years). Las intervenciones que se evaluaron son: 1. Escenario actual: Impuestos al consumo de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol y pruebas aleatorias a automovilistas para detección de aliento alcohólico (alcoholímetro); 2. Incremento de 25% en los impuestos al consumo de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol; 3. Incremento de 50% en los impuestos al consumo de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol; 4. Reducción de la disponibilidad de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol (incrementar edad permitida del cliente, horario de venta, densidad de puntos de venta y corresponsabilidad del expendedor); 5. Regulación de la publicidad asociada al consumo de productos con grado nocivo de alcohol; 6. Intervención preventi-va-persuasiva breve en el primer nivel de atención; 7. Pruebas aleatorias a automovilistas para detección de aliento alcohólico. Resultados La medida independiente con mayor costo-efectividad para evitar DALYs debidos al abuso de alcohol fue el incremento de impuestos, más aún cuando llega a 50%. Todos los incrementos de impuestos evitan por sí solos (con o sin descuento y ajuste por edad) más de 150 000 DALYs por año. El incremento de 50% supera incluso los 300 000 (sin ajuste ni descuento). En cambio, ninguna de las otras intervenciones (con ajuste y descuento) llega a los 50 000. Además, los incrementos de impuestos son siempre más económicos que el resto de las intervenciones. La comparación extrema del costo por DALY evitado al año es entre el incremento de impuestos a 50%, que requiere una inversión de 567 pesos, y el consejo breve en el primer nivel de atención, que implica un gasto de hasta 14,342 pesos. Finalmente, la mejor estrategia integral fue la combinación de las siguientes medidas: incremento de impuestos, mayor proporción de personas atendidas con intervenciones breves, control de la publicidad y reducción de la disponibilidad de alcohol. Discusión Aunque el aumento de impuestos resultó, como en muchos países del mundo, la intervención aislada más costo-efectiva para reducir la carga que ocasiona el alcohol, deben tomarse en cuenta sus posibles impactos diferenciales en tanto el poder adquisitivo de los individuos o grupos y sobre el crecimiento del mercado de alcohol informal. Esto último sugiere la necesidad de acompañarle con estrategias dirigidas a reducir el volumen de bebidas alcohólicas que no pagan impuestos. El resto de las intervenciones fueron menos efectivas en tanto que tienen un impacto considerablemente menor cuando se dispensan de forma aislada, debido principalmente a sus altos costos.
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Abstract: There are different factors within work environment that could créate both wellbeing and distress in workers. The climate perception employees have, as well as their evaluation of some, could have positive and negative consequences at personal and organizational levels. Work stress is another element that has meaningful repercussions on the health of people and on the quality of their performance; it has been related to alcohol and psychoactive substances abuse, besides of an increase in different social and work problems. The main objective of this paper is to determine the relationship between organizational factors (such as work stress, organization climate, and work satisfaction) and alcohol use, and the occurrence of industrial problems and accidents in Mexican workers in a textile organization. Method In order to interfere as less as possible with the production process, this study was carried out at the facilities of the organization, during work hours and during weekends. Thus, only employees who attended to work these days were interviewed. The sample included 277 workers who basically performed as operative staff. No more organization characteristics are described on behalf of an agreement, and of the anonymity of the answers given by the subjects. All the interviewees were men, their ages fluctuated between 16 and 65 years, 85% of them had attained junior high school, and 72% were married or living with a partner. A self rated questionnaire was used, along with the AUDIT (alcohol use disorder identification test) alcohol test, a work stress scale, another scale for organization climate, one more for work satisfaction, and some general questions. All the scales had good internal consistency. The procedure consisted in gathering 20 workers in a well-ventilated and illuminated room. The interviewer, who was previously trained, read the instructions aloud, emphasizing anonymity and confidentiality of any information the workers give, and stating that no one from the company would have access to the data. Analyses were performed with statistical software SPSS 11.5. EQS 6.0 was used to test the structural equation model with the relationship between organizational factors, alcohol use and negative consequences at work. Results Organizational climate. Most of the workers (92%) perceived a good level of communication with the work group, 87.2% mentioned to receive help from the boss when they have to do an activity they are not familiar with, 78% said they have enough support to solve the problems related to work. There were differences between the workers according to education level; the ones with the higher level perceived a more adverse climate. There were differences also between shifts (morning, evening, and mixed); the workers from the first one perceived a less favorable climate. Work satisfaction. Most of the workers think of their job as something useful (95%), 93% said they liked it, and 88.3% mentioned their families are satisfied. There are statistical differences be-tween satisfaction and education levels; subjects who had only basic education were more satisfied than those with a higher level. The stress sources are related to the effort implied in the struggle to move forward (87.6%), to have too much work to do (60.5%), and to the possibility of an accident when subjects are careless (51.6%). The total scale scores indicated that 14.2% of the workers had high levels of work stress. Alcohol use: 61.7% of the workers consumed alcohol during the previous year. According to the AUDIT (using eight or more as a cutoff score) 25.8% were classified as cases for alcohol related problems; 26.5% of the subjects had risk consumption, and 5.3% were consuming in a dangerous way because of the frequency and the amount they drink. Work problems: 24.1% of the subjects mentioned they have invested more time than usual in some activity related to work, 21% have been told off because of their performance, 18% felt they could not achieve quality outcomes. The incidents that workers mentioned were: hand injuries (17.5%), finger injuries (15.7%), being close to suffer an accident (13.5%), and suffering damage or injuries when working (10%). A structural equation model allowed to observe that organizational factors, climate, satisfaction, and work stress are meaningful predictors of work accidents and problems. Of all the variables included in this analysis, work stress also was the one that best predicted alcohol use at the work place. A direct effect of the individual level of alcohol use and of the use at the work place on problems and accidents, was observed. This effect was not initially considered in the model of individual consumption, neither were the frequency, the amount consumed, nor the excessive use; it was necessary to add this direct path to adjust the model so they were observed as important elements. Discussion Interviewees perceived communication as an important climate issue, mainly when established with the work group. Another element mentioned as important was perceived, that is support from the boss or supervisor to solve problems. Education level has a relevant role in the way workers live their work climate; those with a lower level experience it as more favorable. This could be the consequence of higher work expectations related to a higher education level. There are differences among shifts; workers from the first shift experienced a more favorable climate. The model included climate as a meaningful element for the presence of consequences at work place; this had a direct effect over the existence of problems and the occurrence of accidents, it was opposite to the results observed in other studios were there was not a direct relationship. Work satisfaction has to do with job usefulness, the joy for the task done, and family satisfaction with the position. The education at level affects perception of work climate. This evaluation of the worker climate has been identified as a significant factor for the reduction of negative effects at work. It is necessary to mention that employees with a higher stress level are the married ones, which may be caused by the responsibilities implied in being a family supplier. This concurs with the result of a study on burnout, which found that being married is a risk factor to develop high stress. Work stress was the most predictive component of accidents and problems at the work place, which had a direct relation (0.50). It also directly predicted alcohol use at the work place (0.22), and had a negative statistical difference with climate (-.29). Thus, it is important to consider that when workers perceive a better climate, stress level goes down, and it is necessary to consider this organizational factor to improve work conditions besides employees' physical and mental health. According to the model tested in this study, alcohol use has a direct and meaningful effect on performance and on the frequency of problems and accidents, inside and outside the organization. It is important to consider that prevention in work places must be done globally, taking into account organizational factors such as climate, stress, and worker satisfaction. It also should include educative and practical elements that allow reducing excessive alcohol use and its negative consequences (poor performance, bad interpersonal relationships, and bad outcome quality) at work, besides reducing also industrial accidents. The most frequent work problems were as follows: to invest more time than necessary in an activity, to be told-off because of mistakes, and to have problems with the boss or supervisor. These events have an impact on productivity and represent money loss for the company. The most frequent accidents were as follows: hand injuries, which are related to heavy machinery operation, basic in the production process of this industry. This reflects the need to consider the physical aspects of the place where activities are performed, as well as the psychosocial factors affecting individuals, all of which will result in benefit of any organization.